Nov 20, 2008 (CIDRAP News) – A new report from the University of Minnesota warns that an influenza pandemic could disrupt the coal industry, thereby endangering the nation’s significantly coal-dependent electric power system and everything that depends on it.

Graphic: Coal currently is the predominant energy source for electrical power providing nearly half of the Nation’s electricity in 2007. That same year, the U.S. generated over 4 million megawatt hours of electrical power. At least 71% of this power came from coal or natural gas. As of January 1, 2007, the U.S. had 620 coal-powered plants. Clearly, coal is the cornerstone of electrical power generation in the United States – and has been since the 1950s.

“Despite regional differences in coal usage, a pandemic is likely to break links in the coal supply chain, thus disrupting electrical generation. This has the potential to severely endanger the bulk electrical power system in most of the United States,” says the report from the university’s Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP), publisher of CIDRAP News.

The report says that current federal preparedness plans do not address the possibility of power supply problems resulting from reduced coal shipments during a pandemic. A key planning gap, it says, is that federal plans put coal industry workers among those last in line for pandemic vaccines and antiviral drugs.

The authors, CIDRAP research assistant Nicholas Kelley, MSPH, and CIDRAP Director Michael T. Osterholm, PhD, MPH, recommend that power plants stockpile coal to last much longer than the average 30-day supply they have now and that the nation prepare now for disruptions in the coal-supply chain and electrical service. They also urge that coal industry workers be put in the highest priority group for pandemic vaccines and antivirals.

COAL-DEPENDENT NATION

In 2007, the nation’s 620 coal-fired power plants supplied 48.6% of the nation’s electric power, the report says. The reliance on coal varies by region, ranging from 74% in the Midwest to 5% on the West Coast.

Almost 40% of the nation’s coal production in 2007 came from the low-sulfur mines in Wyoming’s Powder River Basin (PRB), which yielded 453.6 million tons, according to the report. With mines from neighboring Montana included, the basin’s 17 mines produced 479.5 million tons. Most of this coal is hauled by train to distant power plants, some as far away as Georgia.

A pair of Wyoming train derailments in May 2005 suggested how an interruption in coal from the PRB could affect the energy industry. Two coal trains on a 103-mile line that connects the region’s coal fields with the national rail network derailed on consecutive days in May. The line, which has three tracks, was out of service for 3 weeks.

During the shutdown, power plants burning PRB coal had to draw down their stockpiles. “By September 2005, many power plants were down to less than 10 days of coal in their stockpile, with some reporting only 2 days of coal on hand,” the report states. “Plant Schere, in Juliette,Georgia, for example, . . . was reduced to 2 days of coal and chose to import coal from Indonesia in an effort to rebuild its coal stockpile.”

As a result of the incident, 25 of 27 utilities and other entities that relied on PRB coal took coal-conservation steps, such as buying electric power from other utilities, reducing generating time, and buying coal from other sources. In the wake of the episode, the energy industry was still rebuilding coal stocks through 2007, the federal Energy Information Administration reported.

“The disruption in 2005 could’ve been catastrophic if we didn’t have the coal conservation strategies the report talked about,” CIDRAP’s Kelley said in an interview. “People say 2005 wasn’t bad, but those conservation strategies likely wouldn’t be available in a pandemic. That’s one of the big take-homes from the report.”

Kelley and Osterholm also examined records related to the flu pandemic of 1918 and found that it caused “serious disruptions” in coal supplies. Their report doesn’t cite evidence of effects on energy production, but anthracite (hard coal) shipments dropped about one sixth, there were reports of coal shortages in New York City, many mines cut production, and some had to shut down for weeks.

GAPS IN GUIDANCE DOCUMENTS

The authors reviewed a dozen pandemic planning guidance documents, including those from the federal government, the World Health Organization, and energy industry groups such as the North American Electric Reliability Council. While one plan, that of the National Infrastructure Advisory Council, notes the importance of coal transportation, “none of the 12 documents prioritizes the mining of coal,” the report says. “This absence is likely due to coal not being listed as a critical infrastructure or key resource.”

Further, coal industry workers, depending on their age and health, are classified with the general population, the lowest priority group, for access to pandemic vaccines and antivirals, the report says. Critical transportation workers, such as train engineers, rank slightly higher-in the third tier-for a severe pandemic, but are placed in the general population in a moderate pandemic, according to the federal allocation plan.

The report asserts that federal pandemic plans have failed to “(1) conceptualize the magnitude of supply chain disruptions that will occur in a global just-in-time economy, (2) address how to prevent pandemic-related electric power disruptions, and (3) offer guidance on how to respond if electrical power is disrupted during a pandemic.”

The authors conclude, “Current levels of pandemic planning are likely insufficient to sustain the coal supply chain during a pandemic; the link between the public health response and reliable access to coal-fueled electricity is neither understood nor addressed in current pandemic plans in the United States.” They add that the public health sector would have great difficulty functioning without a stable supply of electricity during a pandemic.

The reasons for this gap, the authors suggest, include the perception that pandemic planning is largely a public health issue, the lack of a meaningful model or conceptual framework for assessing pandemic-related supply chain disruptions in today’s economy, and a lack of leadership in pandemic planning for the nation’s critical infrastructure.

FUEL LEFT OUT OF THE PICTURE

In an interview, Osterholm said pandemic planning in the electric power industry has focused on the power plants and components downstream from them, such as the transmission lines, giving little attention to fuel supplies. In part this reflected a planning model from Ontario, which didn’t address fuel, because the power plants there are mostly hydroelectric.

“The coal industry was almost forgotten. The fact that coal miners were not placed in any of the top three tiers for vaccines is indicative of that,” Osterholm said.

Utility regulatory agencies have generally ignored the issue, he added. “This has almost been a non-issue for them; they have not made coal stocks for a naturally occurring event like a pandemic a priority in any way. It’s not on their radar screen.”

FOUR RECOMMENDATIONS

The report recommends four steps to address the vulnerability of the coal and power industries to pandemic-related disruptions.

The first is to increase power-plant coal stockpiles so that plants could keep going longer if coal shipments are interrupted. Currently, stockpiles reach their annual peak as utilities prepare for peak summer power demand. The report says this current peak should become the year-round minimum stockpile at all coal-fired plants.

Second, coal miners and support workers should be in the highest priority group for access to antiviral drugs, pandemic vaccine, and other critical products and services. “The entire coal supply chain, from mine to transport, and critical electrical-sector employees, should be placed in tier 1 of the federal vaccine allocation plan,” the report states.

Third, the nation should plan for disruptions in the coal supply chain. Without careful planning, the disruptions may be similar to what happened after the 2005 derailments: “Coal shipments are likely to be reduced by at least 15% to 20% for periods up to 60 days,” the report says.

Finally, the country should “anticipate and develop strategies for responding to disruptions in electrical service.” Utilities are prepared for outages caused by storms, but most are not prepared to deal with fuel shortages, because they are rare and localized, the report asserts.

INCREASING STOCKPILES TOPS THE LIST

The most urgent of the four steps is to increase power-plant coal stockpiles, Osterholm said. With larger stockpiles, he said, “Even if the mines go down or rail service is interrupted, we may be able to get through extended periods of time until we can get the mines back up and running and the trains moving.”

He added that even if miners have priority access to pandemic vaccines, they might still have to wait months for a vaccine well-matched to the pandemic virus. “Increasing coal stocks gives us a better opportunity to reduce that impact,” he said.

The report says energy industry experts are aware of pandemic-related risks, but little has been done about them, mainly because of the cost of increasing power-plant coal stocks in current market conditions. In the 1970s, power plants kept a 2- to3-month supply of coal on hand, but utility commissions encouraged them to reduce that to 30 days to save money.

“Most public utility commissions will not allow power companies to raise their electricity rates solely for the purpose of increasing their coal stocks,” the document states.

Also, Osterholm acknowledged that spending money to build up coal stocks is likely to be a tough sell amid the current economic downturn. “I realize that you can’t ignore the realities of this historic financial crisis, but if we don’t address these issues, we’ll pay a very heavy price at the time of the next pandemic,” he said.

MINERS UNION ENDORSES REPORT

After receiving a copy of the report, a spokesman for the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) strongly endorsed the recommendation that coal miners have priority access to pandemic vaccines and antivirals.

“Without coal, more than half of the nation’s lights go out and computers go off. Without coal miners, there is no coal,” said Daniel J. Kane, the UMWA’s international secretary-treasurer. “Leaving America’s coal miners out of contingency planning for a potential nationwide influenza pandemic makes no sense and puts America at risk. CIDRAP’s study demonstrates the clear need for miners to have priority access to antiviral drugs, vaccines, and critical services should a pandemic strike our nation. We wholeheartedly support that finding.”

CIDRAP News also asked the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to comment on the report. HHS officials did not respond in time for this article. Shannon Feaster of DHS deferred the request to the Department of Energy, saying DOE oversees energy security issues.

See also: CIDRAP coal report (free registration required): “Pandemic Influenza, Electricity, and the Coal Supply: Addressing Crucial Preparedness Gaps in the United States”

http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/content/influenza/biz-plan/news/nov2008coal.html

http://standeyo.com/NEWS/08_Health/081125.pandemic.coal.html

http://www.emergencyresponsestudio.org/index.html

“After Hurricane Katrina, the “FEMA Trailer” entered America’s collective conscious, generally, with very depressing associations. This project re-purposes a used, 30′ Gulfstream Cavalier travel trailer, virtually identical to the 50,000 trailers built by Gulfstream for FEMA. Between April and October, 2008, it is being transformed into a visually engaging, sustainably built, mobile, artist’s studio. the Emergency Response Studio will be a green, “off-grid,” structure, utilizing a sophisticated, photovoltaic solar system and a small wind turbine to generate all the electricity required for lighting, living requirements, and tools. Although the structure’s origins will remain recognizable, the project playfully and purposefully deconstructs the template of the FEMA trailer. A large wall section cranks down to become a deck, opening the interior to its environs, and expanding the usable floor-space. A sculptural, stretched fabric awning made from recycled Kevlar sails will shade this deck and possibly collect rainwater. A ten-foot, elliptical, geodesic skylight will provide daylighting and raise headroom in the work area. A thirteen-foot wall section has shed its aluminum siding in favor of clear, twin-wall polycarbonate sheathing. A 35′ high aluminum mast tilts up, supporting a “micro” wind turbine. A large battery box is constructed below floor level and covered with a thick lucite floor panel, revealing the 1300 lbs of batteries which store all the power for the structure. A large, roof-top array of solar panels will fold-up to face the sun and charge these big batteries. Sustainable, non-toxic materials replace the formaldehyde-ridden original materials: kitchen cabinetry will be constructed from bamboo-based plywood; flooring will be natural linoleum, made from linseed oil; insulation in ceiling and floors is made from recycled denim; paints and wood finishes are no- or low-VOC; and much of the wood used to re-frame and panel walls is re-used and is sourced from a local building materials recycler.”

The ability to generate power silently with out the use of a generator makes this a excellent choice to bug out with. The only thing missing is a large water storage tank. I would have preferred to see larger propane tanks as well. All in all this is an excellent prototype and should give everyone something to work towards if they plan on building a bug out trailer.

Other artciles about this setup:

http://www.inhabitat.com/2008/10/29/emergency-response-studio-by-paul-villinski/#more-15786

http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/07/arts/design/07smit.html?_r=2&ref=design&oref=slogin&oref=slogin

http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jun/13/entertainment/et-trailer13

His gallery is mirrored here. This is great material for your own inspiration. I applaud this artist for documenting everything along the way. Taking a confined closed and stressful enclosure and opening it up as much as he did makes for a relaxed environment that is needed in the stressful time that this camper is put to use.

The following description is how a miniature windmill was made, which gave considerable power for its size, even in a light breeze.

Article originally found at:

the Survival and Prepardness Archive

http://sparc.areyouprepared.org/archive/

Reproduced here for education and discussion.

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This is version 1.0 of the Generator FAQ.

Disclaimer

This document provides an overview of the use of generators for standby power. Use of generators can be dangerous. While an overview of safety issues is given, READERS SHOULD OBTAIN AND FOLLOW SAFETY INFORMATION FROM A SEPARATE, RELIABLE S OURCE PRIOR TO USING ANY GENERATOR. This FAQ is not comprehensive and in particular does not pertain to standby systems used for life support or other situations where power failure could cause bodily injury or property damage. Information on transfer s witches and electrical wiring is not intended as a substitute for competent work by a qualified, licensed electrician.

Generator Basics

Generators are shaft-driven machines that produce electric power. Broadly speaking, they range in size and capacity from the tiny devices used as sensors to the extremely large machines used at commercial power plants. The term “alternator” is also used and means essentially the same thing. The term “generator set” or “genset” is sometimes used to describe a generator along with a gasoline or diesel engine or other power source.
This FAQ covers the use of generators to provide standby power in an emergency for a single family or small group.

Generators are rated in terms of the amount of power they can produce. This is measured in Watts (W) or Kilowatts (kW). A Kilowatt is equal to 1,000 Watts. Some household items list their power requirement in Watts, such as light bulbs and small applia nces. Others only list Amperes (abbreviated A or Amps). Most household electrical loads (including all cord-connected appliances that plug into a standard outlet) run on 120 Volts, and since Watts = Amps X Volts, you can determine Watts by multiplying the amp requirement by 120. Large heating and cooling appliances, and well pumps, sometimes use 240 Volts. This can be determined from the nameplate. For these loads, wattage is determined by multiplying amps by 240.

Types

Commercially available generators useful for small-scale standby power fall into these categories: Type, Wattage, Approximate Price Range

Small portable units marketed primarily for camping.

Generally less than 2 kW

$400-$600

Midsize portable units

3-5 kW.

$400-$2,000

Large trailer-mount units without engines, driven by a farm tractor

15-60 kW

$2,000-$5,000

Large trailer-mount units designed for construction or industrial use

10 kW or more.

Large standby units designed for permanent installation.

5-40 kW or more

$4,000-$12,000

Costs vary depending on ruggedness, reliability, and features.

The more expensive units typically include features like:

Better quality engines, with pressure lubrication, cast iron cylinder blocks (or cast iron sleeves), oil filters, and electronic ignition. The primary benefit of these is longevity, although the better engines may be somewhat more reliable.

Larger fuel tank for long, unattended runs.

Low oil shutdown to prevent engine damage

Electric start

Built in battery charger for 12V car batteries

Quieter design, achieved through better mufflers, soundproofing, and lower operating RPM

Ground fault circuit interruptors (GFCI) for safety

Wheels. Even the smaller generators are heavy.

There are a wide variety of brands available. All of them work, and most are adequate for occasional standby use.

The generators that are driven by a farm tractor are a good buy if you already own one or more farm tractors. Unlike car and truck mount generators, tractor-driven ones produce ample power. Tractors are better suited to continuous, stationary operation than cars and trucks.

Uses

Generators can be useful in a long-duration power outage by providing power to run essential equipment, such as refrigerators, freezers, lighting, water pumps, sump pumps, and furnaces. They are also useful for providing power where it is inconvenient, costly, or impossible to bring commercially produced power.
Sizing

Determining the exact size generator required for a household involves adding up the wattage required by each load, including the starting power required by the largest motor and any others that will be started at the same time. It is difficult to get accurate results since starting current requirements often vary and because nameplate ratings sometimes overstate the power required.

If a generator is too small for its load, the voltage will drop. This can cause damage to the generator, the load, or both. Circuit breakers and thermal protectors may trip and prevent damage, but cannot be relied upon. Do not connect loads to the g enerator that are too large for its capacity.

If you only want to run a few critical items, you can use this chart as a guide:

Generator size

Loads typically supported

1000W or less

Lights, radio, battery chargers, clocks, fax, or computer

1500W

above items, also small manual defrost freezer or refrigerator

3500W 240V

same as 1500W, plus ½ H.P. well pump (if 240V)

3500W 120V

Most refrigerators and freezers, clothes washer, gas clothes dryer, sump pump, ½ H.P. furnace blower, ½ H.P. well pump (if 120V), nearly any plug-connected appliance with a standard 120V plug

5000W 240V

Same as 3500W, plus most well pumps up to 2 H.P.

15,000 W 240V

Will run all the loads in most households including electric water heaters, dryers, well pumps, and ranges; will run many central air conditioning units. Electric heat systems need to be considered case by case as many larger systems use more power than even a big generator like this produces.

Determining the size analytically

To determine the size generator required using pencil and paper, you need to add up the power used by everything that you want to operate at the same time. Use the starting power required for the largest motor and for any ot her motors that will start simultaneously.

For small installations, the large motor loads that need to be served determine the size generator that is needed. Induction motors, such as those used in water pumps, sump pumps, washers, dryers, refrigerators, freezers, air conditioners, and furnace blowers require a large amount of power to start. These
motors will draw 2-3 times or more their rated amperage for about a second when first started. If the generator cannot produce this number of amps while still maintaining roughly 90% or more of the rated voltage, the motor will not start.

Portable hand tools use universal motors still use a lot of power to start, but they are not as sensitive to voltage drop and will usually start anyway even if the voltage drops as much as 50%.

Larger motors will list a “code” on the motor nameplate which indicates the starting current required. This applies primarily to industrial and farm equipment, and well pumps, since small household motors do not include the code. Here’s a list of the codes:

Code

Starting kW per horsepower

A: 0-3.15

B: 3.15-3.55

C: 3.55-4.0

D: 4.0-4.5

E: 4.5-5.0

F: 5.0-5.6

G: 5.6-6.3

H: 6.3-7.1

J: 7.1-8.0

K: 8.0-9.0

L: 9.0-10.0

M: 10.0-11.2

N: 11.2-12.5

P: 12.5-14.0

R: 14.0-16.0

S: 16.0-18.0

T: 18.0-20.0

U: 20.0-22.4

V: 22.4 and up

If a code is not present, assume that the motor will require at least 3 times its rated amperage to start. Some require much more.

Measuring the Load

Sometimes it helps to measure the amount of power a particular piece of equipment (or an entire household) uses. This may be the only way to determine power requirements accurately if there is no nameplate listing the power required. Clamp-on ammeters are available at most building supply stores for about $50-$100 that will measure the number of amps flowing through a wire. They usually include an attachment that you can use for cord-and-plug connected devices.

More sophisticated ammeters that measure starting current are available but are costly ($400) and require some expertise to use.

Electrical Hookup

There are three ways to hook up generators:

Plug in loads directly, using extension cords if necessary.

Plugging in loads to the generator’s outlets directly is the simplest and works OK when only a few small loads are used. This method is used in remote areas and for construction, where no electric wiring is present. It also works in standby situations for running a handful of things, say, a freezer, refrigerator, sump pump, and a couple lights.

Generators must be operated outdoors unless specifically designed for indoor operation. Those designed for indoor use have an exhaust system that vents outside.

Since the generator is usually outside and the load is inside, extension cords are needed. Be sure they’re big enough.

Most of the orange extension cords sold use 16 gauge wire and are rated for 13 amps. These are fine for a couple of small appliances but create a fire hazard when used for heavier loads.

Transfer switches

Transfer switches allow you to connect a load to either the generator or the commercial power source simply by flipping a switch. They are the only reasonable and safe alternative for running an entire house from a generator . They are also the only way to run equipment that can’t be unplugged, such as furnace blowers, well pumps, and the like. Different configurations are available that allow switching of all or part of a household’s electrical circuits. They are expensive and must be installed by an electrician or other qualified person. Some examples: Transfer switches that have 4-6 different handles, each of which switches a single circuit, are available for around $200 from many retailers that sell generators. They wire into the house’s breaker or fuse panel. You only hook up the circuits that yo u will need in an emergency, which reduces the cost, and you can switch them one at a time so all the motors don’t start at once.

Some designs include an ammeter so you can see how much power you’re using. Some designs, including one from Square D that I have seen, use circuit breakers to perform the switching and have an interlock so you can only turn on one circuit breaker – either the generator breaker or the commercial power breaker. I have seen the se for as little as $60 plus the cost of the circuit breakers. Again you only hook up the circuits that you think you will need in an emergency. These panels hook up to your main breaker panel as a sub-panel.

Large transfer switches switch the power to a house or group of buildings and are wired between the meter socket and breaker (or fuse) panel. These cost $300-$600 depending on capacity. They are costly to install as well.

Automatic transfer switches will start the generator and switch the load to it without intervention. Some standby systems have these built in. One catalog I have lists a 200A model as costing almost $2,000. Telephone companies, hospitals, radio and TV stations, and the like use larger versions of these.

Transfer switches are wired with a large, flexible cord and plug for use with portable generators. The cord and plug are not normally included with the transfer switch and must be purchased separately. Welding supply companies are a good, inexpensive source for the heavy gauge wire required.

If you plan to connect the generator to building wiring, consider the transfer switch part of the cost of the generator.

Suicide wiring

Any method of connecting a generator to a building’s electrical system, other than by using a transfer switch, falls under the category of suicide wiring.

You can be killed.

And you can kill an electric lineman if you fail to isolate your generator from the power company’s lines, by causing electricity to back-feed into the commercial power system. You can also burn up your generator or your house. It is also against the law in many jurisdictions.

Plan ahead. Buy a transfer switch. Get it installed. Don’t use suicide wiring.

There is no safe way to do suicide wiring and the author does not recommend it under any circumstances. If you choose to go ahead and do it anyway, this information may help you:

1. Get somebody qualified to help you unless you really know what you’re doing.
2. ISOLATE the breaker panel from the commercial power source by disconnecting and taping the supply connection from the main breaker or busbars. You can leave the neutral connected, just remove the hot connections. Follow the precautions for working on live electrical circuits since the commercial power could come back on without warning while you’re working: make sure everything is dry, keep your left hand in your pocket, and use the buddy system.
3. Use wire of adequate capacity for the full rated output of the generator. For generators up to 4800 watts that would be 12 gauge unless you’re going more than 50 feet or so. Use wire rated for outdoor use. If possible, connect it to the main breaker o r lugs where you removed the supply connection. Sometimes the smaller wire won’t connect securely to big breakers or lugs. You can try folding it over a couple times to make it bigger around or undo the wires from a non-critical 240V breaker, say for the air conditioning, and hook the hot up there. Hook up the neutral to the neutral busbar. If your generator has a separate ground, hook that up to the ground bus if there is one, or the neutral bus if it is bonded. Be sure everything is connected securely o r it will overheat. Use the right plug to connect to your generator.
4. Check everything to make sure there are no signs of overheating while operating.
5. Get a qualified electrician to clean up the mess and put in a transfer switch when the power comes back on.

Again, the author does not recommend that this type of wiring be used under any circumstances.

Safety

Here’s some basic advice on generator safety. Read the instructions for your generator or check with a dealer or licensed electrician for authoritative safety rules.

1. Follow the safety instructions that come with the generator.
2. Keep the generator outside so you don’t breathe carbon monoxide and die. Protected locations, such as a garage with the garage door open, are helpful if the weather is bad.
3. Follow whatever grounding instructions come with the generator. Generators should be grounded but the recommendations for how this is done vary depending on manufacturer.
4. You can get a bad shock by touching a wet power cord or plug while the generator is running. Shut off the engine before fiddling with the power connections if it is wet out.
5. Don’t refuel a hot engine. If you refuel at night, use a source of light that won’t ignite the gas. The cyalume sticks work well for this.
6. Don’t overload extension cords.
7. Use a transfer switch.
8. Store gasoline outside, in a safe container.

More accidents happen during power outages than occur when power is available, particularly fires. Here are some general tips for safety during power outages:

1. Don’t leave candles or oil or gasoline lanterns burning unattended.
2. Realize that smoke and carbon monoxide detectors will not work without power.
3. Have fire extinguishers at hand.
4. Have some water drawn up in buckets or pans to use in case the water supply fails.

Fuels and Fuel Storage

Most portable generators run on gasoline. But gasoline is a poor choice for standby use, because it is unsafe to store in residential areas and is prone to deterioration when stored for any length of time.

Gasoline is extremely flammable and should not be stored in any quantity in a house or garage. There is no safe way to store gasoline in a building. Building and zoning codes, and insurance requirements, vary; some municipalities prohibit permanently installed gasoline tanks and limit the size of portable ones.. In the author’s area gasoline suppliers recommend that bulk storage tanks be at least 10′ away from garages and other buildings. Some of the author’s acquaintances store gasoline in 5 gallon cans in a little building not much larger than a doghouse, that is used for nothing else and is a long way from all the other buildings.

Gasoline can be stored in full, sealed containers for 1-2 years or more without deterioration, provided that high temperatures are avoided. Air, water, and heat all contribute to deterioration.

The author uses a commercial fuel preserving additive in the gas tank for his generator, but there is no consensus on misc.survivalism that such additives materially improve the storage life of gasoline.

Some, mostly larger, generators are available with diesel engines. These engines are, as a rule, noisier than gasoline engines and are more difficult to start in cold weather. For standby use, they may be worth having because of fuel storage considerations.

Diesel fuel and kerosene are much safer to store than gasoline. It is still common to store fuel oil, which has similar properties, indoors in houses in quantities up to 250 gallons. Again, building and zoning codes and insurance rules may limit the amount or method of storage. These products should not be stored in red cans because of the potential for confusion with gasoline. These fuels can be stored 2-3 years before they deteriorate.

Midsize and larger generators designed for permanent installation and standby use are available for use with LP gas or natural gas. The engines are like gasoline engines in most respects but replace the carburetor with a mixing system designed for LP o r natural gas. LP gas standby generators are widely used in industrial/commercial settings. The chief benefit is that LP gas can be stored indefinitely without deterioration.

LP gas conversion kits are available for many small generators.

Readiness

There are no statistics available, but anecdotal evidence suggests that generators frequently fail to start when they are needed, even in industrial settings where regular maintenance and testing is performed.

Electric start generators sometimes fail to start because the battery is dead. Batteries that are continuously trickle-charged may start the engine while being charged but fail when the charger is turned off, as in an actual emergency. Battery terminals also have a way of getting corroded.

Stale gasoline can contribute to starting problems, especially in cold weather. Using starting fluid will sometimes make up for this.

Spare parts and supplies should be kept on hand. At a minimum, some extra motor oil, suitable starting aids, air and oil filters (if used), and a spark plug should be available.

You should periodically operate your generator, and hook up whatever loads you plan to use, to make sure that everything is ready if needed. Once a month is probably often enough to catch most problems.

How Practical Is a Generator?

The author has had to resort to using the generator during a couple of long-duration power outages. Severe weather can be extremely disruptive to power systems and the unlucky individuals whose own lines are knocked down in a st orm end up at the end of the power company’s list for repairs. Power losses can be costly if you stand to loose the contents of your freezer, or if cold weather and no heat threatens to freeze pipes.

On the other hand, unless you can afford a fully automatic, permanently installed system, you had better be able-bodied. It’s work to pull out the generator and start it and hook it up even if you have a good setup.

Big generators are noisy. Everyone in the neighborhood will know that you’re running one.

You may wish to consider running the generator during only part of a 24-hour period. Most refrigerators and freezers will maintain temperature if operated 50% of the time, depending on ambient temperature, condition of the door seal, and how often the door is opened.

Fuel availability is a thorny issue. Gas stations require electricity to be able to pump gas. The author is fortunate enough to live in a setting where it is possible to store ample quantities of fuel to run the generator for a week or more. Even the worst power outages are ordinarily corrected after a week, two at the most.

Those of you concerned about Y2K and other TEOTWAWKI scenarios should consider other alternatives that do not rely on fuel availability.

Other Ways to Produce Electricity

Several companies sell inverters that produce 120V electricity using the power from a car or truck’s battery and alternator. These are not suitable for most standby uses because the output power is too low. The largest car and t ruck alternators produce no more than 2000 watts, and this only at high engine speeds. The really big inverters – 2000W and over, capable of running a refrigerator – are expensive, big, heavy, and require heavy cabling to the battery. The logistics of ope rating a vehicle while stationary must also be considered: how do you secure the vehicle, potential for damage due to low oil or high temperature while unattended, potential for transmission bearing damage due to extended idling, poor fuel economy.

There are some belt-driven and PTO-driven generators for cars and trucks that have similar problems. In addition, most of these units must be operated at a specific speed. Unless the vehicle is equipped with an engine governor, this is difficult.

Uninterruptable power supplies (UPS) are designed primarily for use with computers and communications equipment. They generally are designed for short-duration outages, 15 minutes or less.

Solar, hydroelectric, and wind generators are a topic in their own right and are beyond the scope of this FAQ. Many products marketed for use with alternative power systems are also useful for standby use. It might make sense in some cases to have low- voltage DC wiring for lights that can be operated from batteries in an emergency.

Non-electric Alternatives

There are a number of low-tech techniques that can reduce your dependence on electricity. Some are effective by themselves, and others will reduce the size generator you need or the hours you need to run it.

1. Use something besides electricity for the primary source of heat. Although any modern central heating system requires some electricity to operate, you can run a natural gas, LP gas, or oil-fired furnace from a generator of modest size. Electric heat s ystems can’t be operated except by very large generators.
2. Replace electric appliances with gas. Houses that are served by a natural gas supplier rarely have gas outages and electric outages at the same time (except possibly in earthquake-prone areas). LP gas is stored in tanks and is independent of electrica l and other utilities. A gas stove can be used without electricity if the burners are lit with a match. Most gas water heaters don’t require electricity at all (except for horizontal exhaust and other power-vented units).
3. Have a wood stove or fireplace insert that is capable of heating your house. Have enough wood on hand to be able to use it in a power outage.

A wide variety of non-electric lighting is available. Aladdin lamps, which burn kerosene and produce a bright light, are practical and safer to use inside than gasoline lanterns. Lamps that operate on LP gas supplied through pipes are available. They m ount permanently to a wall or ceiling, and are bright, safe, and cheap to operate. Inexpensive kerosene wick lamps are widely available and produce more light than candles.

LP gas and kerosene operated refrigerators and freezers are available. Some will also operate on electricity. Full-size units are expensive but no more so than a good generator installation.

Smaller refrigerators, such as those used in RVs, are available too – though some require a 12V DC power source to operate the controls and ignition system even when running on LP gas.

The Author

The FAQ is maintained by Steve Dunlop. Steve lives in Minnesota and has several off-the-grid friends. He has two generators of his own, one a 20-year old tractor-driven unit and the other a little 1500 watt Coleman. Mike S. Medintz, http://www.grapevine.net/~medintz “

The battery bank in a home power system serves two purposes. It acts as a voltage stabilizer for the system, moderating the high voltages that can occur during battery charging and minimizing the low voltages common in high demand situations. It also acts as a power reservoir, supplying the power needed when the load demand exceeds the capabilities of the power (charging) source. For instance, if you have a solar panel that produces 51 watts of power and want it to power a light bulb that requires 100 watts, the additional 49 watts of power required by the light bulb will be supplied by the battery. The power used by the battery is then replaced when the light bulb is not in use.

RV/MARINE BATTERIES

RV and marine batteries are available in a variety of sizes to 100 amp hour and are normally 12 volt. They may be of the standard, serviceable type or the sealed, “maintenance-free” style. They are common in small home power and portable power systems.

Advantages

These batteries are small, compact and easy to handle and install. Their initial cost is relatively low. The sealed types have the added advantage of being nonspillable and low gassing which makes them attractive for indoor applications.

Disadvantages

These batteries are not designed for heavy cycling so they may have a shorter life span than other types, depending on how heavily they are cycled. To obtain more than 100 amp hours capacity more than one battery must be connected in parallel. The sealed types have the added disadvantage of having limited cycling capability and sensitive charging characteristics. They can easily be overcharged.

GOLF CART BATTERIES

These batteries are available in 220 to 300 amp hour capacities and are normally 6 volts per battery. They are a good choice for small to medium home systems.

Advantages

Since these batteries are designed for deep cycling they will give better performance and longer life than the RV/marine batteries. They are still relatively light in weight and easy to handle and have lower per-amp-hour costs than the RV/marine batteries. They are also less susceptible to damage from overcharge and can handle higher charging currents.

Disadvantages

Since they normally are 6 volt and most home power systems are 12 volt, these batteries require a series-parallel connection which is a little more complicated. They will give off more gas during charging and should be stored in a ventilated area. There will be some water loss which will require replacement water periodically. Their 6 volt configuration limits the amp hour capacity so they are not good batteries for large systems.

INDUSTRIAL/STATIONARY BATTERIES

These batteries, which are normally manufactured as individual 2 volt units, are available in a broad range of capacities to 3000 amp hours. Six 2 volt units are connected in series for 12 volt systems. They are an excellent choice for medium to large capacity home power systems.

Advantages

These batteries have the advantage of long life under deep cycling conditions. Since the desired system capacity can be achieved in one six-cell configuration, charge/discharge characteristics are excellent. Maintenance and cycling specifications will vary but are well suited to home power applications.

Disadvantages

The initial set-up costs will be higher, because of the additional amp hour capacity. Also, these batteries are quite heavy (to 350 lb. per 2 volt cell) and will require a well-supported area and special handling and transportation assistance.

NICKEL CADMIUM/NICKEL IRON BATTERIES

The batteries previously discussed are called “lead-acid” batteries in that they consist of lead plates in a sulfuric acid solution and are the most common batteries utilized in home power applications. Nickel cadmium and nickel iron batteries consist of nickel alloy plates in an alkaline solution which dramatically alters the operating characteristics of the battery. These batteries are also good choices for home power systems but involve special considerations.

Advantages:

They are longer life. The best lead-acid batteries may achieve 20 years whereas the nickel alloys can have a 50 year life.

Maintenance is lower due to higher voltage characteristics and their ability to sit partially or totally discharged for extended periods of time without failure.

Battery voltage on the nickel alloy batteries does not follow the basically linear pattern of the lead-acid batteries during discharge so much more of the rated amp hour capacity is actually available at the practical level. In addition, the nickel alloy batteries can be repeatedly completely discharged without damage or loss of battery life.

The nickel alloy batteries are not easily damaged by severe cold and retain higher discharge potential than the lead-acid in colder temperatures.

Nickel alloy batteries have lower internal resistance so matching batteries of differing ages and sizes in a home power system battery bank is much easier than with lead-acid batteries.

Disadvantages:

The initial cost of purchasing a nickel alloy battery bank is very high compared to lead-acid, even with the reconditioned batteries (which are most prevalent in home power systems). This is the major deterrent to most people.

the broad charging voltage range creates some compatibility problems which have to be addressed when matching the nickel alloy batteries to other home power equipment such as inverters or chargers.

Their non-linear discharge rate makes the charge state of the nickel alloy batteries more difficult to monitor.

The nickel alloy batteries are often not as easily disposed of as lead-acid batteries when their useful life has ended.

Lead – Acid batteries

Batteries serve as a storage device for electrical energy. Although the general idea is simple, batteries must be carefully selected and maintained to have a reliable power system. If batteries are poorly selected or maintained, they can degrade at a rapid pace and require frequent or premature replacement, often at considerable expense.

Cycling

The normal use of a battery is known as cycling. Cycling is the process of removing electricity from and replacing it to a battery system. When electricity has been consumed and then replaced, it can be said that the battery has been cycled. The extent of the cycling or the depth of discharge is usually expressed as a percentage of the total battery capacity. Thus, if 50 amp hours is consumed from a 100 amp hour battery , it is said to be 50% discharged. A cycle exceeding about 20% of a batteries capacity is said to be a deep cycle, while a discharge and replacement of less than 20% is referred to as a shallow cycle.

Efficiency

Not all the energy that is put into a battery can be taken back out. Some 10 to 20 percent will be lost ultimately to heat through the electrochemical charging process. As such, 110 – 120 amp hours must be imparted to a battery to provide 100 amp hours of usable energy.

In addition to the losses incurred during charging, another source of energy loss is self-discharge. The “typical” lead acid battery will lose 10 – 20% of its energy in a month, more at high temperatures, less at lower temperatures. Lead calcium batteries have lower self discharge rates than lead antimony types, but perform poorly as true deep cycle batteries.

Temperature

As well as affecting self discharge rates, temperature affects battery performance in other ways. The optimum performance temperature range for batteries is 60 – 80 degrees Fahrenheit. At these temperatures, the battery will perform at 100% of its rated capacity. As temperatures drop, battery longevity increases, but performance drops. The battery goes into a state of partial “suspended animation” and only some of it’s potential power is available. You may have experienced this while starting your car in cold weather. (unless you are fortunate enough to live where there is no such thing as cold weather.) For example, at freezing (32 degrees Fahrenheit) some 65% of battery capacity can be utilized, but at zero only 40 percent is available.

Freezing

Freezing of batteries is a major concern of northern climate inhabitants. A fully charged battery typically will not freeze down to 70 to 90 degrees below zero, while a fully discharged battery is susceptible to freezing at +32 degrees. This is because of the chemical process which creates electricity in a battery. As a battery becomes discharged, the sulfuric acid in the electrolyte gradually bonds to the lead oxide in the battery plates. As this process continues, the electrolyte becomes less and less concentrated, until finally it is (theoretically but I wouldn’t drink it) pure water. Since water freezes at +32 F, the dead battery will then freeze at this temperature. Damage caused by freezing is mostly mechanical, I.E. the bursting of cases, plate breakage, separator failure, mechanical shorting, plate material delamination and many other woes too hideous to mention. Although batteries can sometimes survive even a severe freeze-up, there is always damage done, and reduced life can be expected.

Maintenance

A properly maintained battery bank can last 10, 20, or even 30 years in rare instances. A poorly maintained bank of the same quality can be ruined in a matter of months (or even days at the hands of an expert). This is why battery maintenance is so important. Here are the basic do’s & don’ts:

DO

Water batteries after charging , but only to the indicated full mark.

Keep the batteries from freezing, especially when discharged

Use only distilled water to water batteries

Periodically check the specific gravity of each cell with a hydrometer – Wide (<.020) variations indicate the need for an equalize charge and can indicate a failing cell.

Perform an equalization charge every 3 months or so, regardless of specific gravity variation, to remove any sulfation and mix the electrolyte. This is energy well spent.

Wear goggles when dealing with batteries. Gloves and a rubber apron are a good idea as well.

Keep a supply of fresh water on hand when working around batteries. This can be used to rinse hands, eyes, or clothing to remove battery acid.

Keep batteries stored at a full state of charge. Long term discharge causes batteries to sulfate, and will eventually render them useless.

Educate yourself in the care and maintenance of the batteries you are using.

DONT:

Use tap water

Work on batteries with metal tools immediately after or during charging, they could cause a spark and subsequent explosion

Overcharge your batteries

Allow connections to get so corroded that you can barely see them for the gooky stuff, or at all, when possible.

Work with batteries without proper safety equipment and procedures.

Drop batteries, especially on your toe.

GOOD IDEAS:

Keep a log of specific gravity readings and voltages

Contact us if you have any questions

Keep safety stuff in the battery area for easy access

Equalizing

An equalization charge is merely a controlled overcharging of the battery bank. This can be accomplished by using a generator and battery charger or other power sources with the voltage regulation equipment turned off. The object is to bring battery voltage to 15 – 16 volts and hold it there until hydrometer readings in all cells are equal or have stopped increasing, or until all sulfation (white flecks on the plates) has been removed, or both. 15 -16 volts is too high for some electronic equipment, so you should check maximum ratings and disconnect these items as necessary. At these charging voltages, water loss will be significant and water should be replaced as needed. Take care that the batteries do not get hot to the touch (warm is OK) and if necessary reduce charging current or voltage.

Gassing

Gassing is a normal process that batteries undergo while charging. During the charging process, hydrogen and oxygen are released into the air through the vents on the battery tops, usually along with some water vapor. This can often form a damp surface on the battery that is conductive, leading to corrosion. Remove this film by rinsing with hot water. Water loss through gassing can be reduced through the use of hydrocaps, little catalyst do – dads that recombine the hydrogen & oxygen into water, which drains back into the battery.

Caution

Because gassing produces hydrogen (very flammable) and oxygen (which makes things even more flammable) great care should be taken not to inadvertently ignite this (flammable) mixture. Although the quantities produced are small, in a tightly confined space (like in the tops of the batteries) a flame or spark can cause a violent explosion, shattering batteries and sending acid and debris flying about at ridiculous speeds. It is good practice to give batteries the same consideration you would afford to a fuel can or tank in this respect. (unless you are one of those folks who puts out cigarettes in gas cans just to prove that it won’t light)(this is a very, very, bad idea)

Corrosion

Through the gassing process, some corrosion can be expected to accumulate on battery terminals or metal in the vicinity of the batteries. This can easily be removed with HOT water and a scrub brush. Be sure to rinse clean, and as always when working with batteries, wear eye protection. If left unchecked, corrosion can destroy battery posts and terminals, eat through enclosures, and even create dangerous sparks if connections fail. While sometimes fun to watch, corrosion is generally a bad thing and should be held in check through regular cleaning and maintenance. (kind of like teeth)

Enclosures

Batteries should be placed in a vented enclosure that will maintain a temperature of 50-80 degrees Fahrenheit. Sometimes this is simply not possible, but you should do the best that you can. Proper venting of the battery compartment helps to remove the hydrogen and is easily accomplished. Merely venting the highest part of the battery box to the outside is often all that is required. Small battery banks may not require venting, but should be protected from sparks & open flame.

Determining the state of charge

The state of charge of a lead acid battery can be checked in several ways. The first, and arguably easiest method is to measure the voltage of the battery bank. A fully charged 12 volt battery will read about 12.7 volts at 70 degrees Fahrenheit. (double this for 24 volt systems) By the time the voltage reads 12.2, it is 50% discharged, and at 11.9 it is considered empty. The problem with measuring charge in this way is that if there has been any recent activity (charging or discharging) in the batteries, the readings will be highly inaccurate, and temperature can also adversely affect the reading. The second method to determine the state of charge is to use a hydrometer. By measuring the specific gravity of the battery bank, the hydrometer can give you an accurate indication of remaining energy. For example, a fully charged battery may read 1.270, at 50% read 1.190, and at 1.100 be discharged. Hydrometer readings should be adjusted for temperature, and should be performed with the batteries at rest for at least ½ hour. The third and most convenient way to measure battery capacity is with an amp hour meter. These totalizing meters measure energy flow into and out of the battery and keep a running total of available energy at any given instant. Although they may require occasional resynchronization, these meters are very accurate and provide at a glance insight into the state of your system.

Originally posted at:

http://www.solaralaska.com/primer/battery.htm

I lurk in a wider group of NGs then I ever post in.
sci.geo.satellite-nav is a GPS (there are other satellite nav systems but GPS is the most common) NG. LG hangs out there. A guy wrote an interesting article on batteries. A lot of us use batteries for many usefull activities. It agrees (mostly) with my own studies and experience.

Matching the Battery to the Task

By DAVID POGUE

IF the F.B.I. ever singled me out for surveillance, its final report wouldn’t hold much interest. “Wife, two kids, dog. Watches `Survivor.’ Aversion to mayo.” Only one line at the end of the document might seem a little peculiar. “Buys AA batteries by the gross.”

These days, most gizmos digital cameras, palmtops, music players seem to have been designed in a conspiracy with Duracell: they guzzle batteries like Gatorade at the marathon finish line. And it’s not just me. According to an Industrial Market Research survey, the average American has about 25 battery-operated gadgets in the house, up from only 7 in 1987.

The battery makers, of course, are delighted. All around us, we see ads for new kinds of batteries that “offer unsurpassed power for today’s demanding devices,” “last longer on high-tech devices” and have “longer service life.” In the name of science, I decided to perform a few simple tests: I’d pop sets of each heavily hyped battery into, say, a Palm organizer and see how long they took to run down. What could be more scientific?

As it turns out, almost anything. When I shared my plans with representatives of the Big Three Duracell, Eveready and Rayovac they told me, with the weary sighs of people who explain this point to journalists every day, that battery run-down tests are terribly misleading. For starters, a battery designed to excel in such a test would do poorly in the real world, where people play, pause and put aside their electronics for days or weeks. Who on earth actually runs a gadget continuously until it’s out of power? (Game Boy owners, you can put your hands down.) Furthermore, the battery makers say, there is much greater inconsistency in the power consumption of supposedly identical devices than between two different batteries.

“We’d be delighted to help you design valid tests,” one battery company representative said. “And we’ll look forward to reading the results around Christmas.”

When people conduct proper battery tests the repetitive, expensive, computer-controlled sort prescribed by the American National Standards Institute they find little variation across brands. One such test, published by Consumer Reports in March, offered a straightforward conclusion: When you need standard alkalines, ignore the marketing; just buy the cheapest ones.

Whatever size you’re looking for, from tiny AAA’s to fat C’s and D’s, the hard part is figuring out whether to buy the standard alkalines or some other type. Until 1980, you had only one type to choose: the silver “heavy duty” batteries, like the Eveready types with the black-cat logo. But that era is long over.

What replaced those old “standard” batteries is a wide and confusing range of higher-powered battery types: alkaline, premium alkaline, rechargeable alkaline, nickel metal hydride and lithium. (All told, 92 percent of the batteries sold
nationwide are alkalines, which offer from two to six times as much life at roughly the same price as the old “heavy-duty” type.)

It would feel glorious to declare one type the winner and then rent a movie to celebrate. Alas, batteries aren’t that simple.

In general, you can break down today’s battery-operated devices into three categories. First, there are low-drain gadgets that sip power with all the gusto of an elderly aunt at afternoon tea: radios, clocks and flashlights that you keep on hand only for emergencies.

The vast majority of today’s electronic gizmos fall into the moderate-drain category: tape recorders, Game Boys, music and CD players, electronic toys, pagers, boomboxes, smoke detectors, remote controls and flashlights that you’ll use a lot when
camping, for example. The third category, high-drain devices, has only a few occupants like digital cameras, palmtops, remote-control toys, portable televisions and photo flash units but is likely to see more arrivals in the next few years.

Once you’ve grasped that much background, buying batteries is fairly simple: for low- and medium-powered equipment, standard alkalines offer the best power per penny.

Battery selection for high-drain gear, however, is where the game gets interesting. In a typical digital camera, standard
alkalines might last all of 30 minutes, as many a crestfallen consumer discovers.

That’s why some companies are touting something called premium alkalines reformulated batteries designed to last longer than standard alkalines in high-drain gadgetry. (The improvements include, as Duracell puts it, “proprietary separator material, enhanced cathode design and a high-power anode composition,” just as you probably suspected.)

Duracell, for example, says that its premium battery, called Ultra, lasts up to twice as long as standard copper-tops in high- drain electronics. (Energizer’s E2 line is also a premium alkaline, but Consumer Reports says it’s not much more powerful than standard alkalines.)

On the other hand, Ultra isn’t as effective in medium- or low-drain electronics, offering an improvement of less than 50
percent, Duracell says, over standard alkalines. Any improvement is welcome, of course, but remember that Ultras cost about $1 apiece in a multipack, twice the price of store-brand regular alkalines. In other words, the convenience of Ultras is worth paying for in your Palm, television or digital camera but may be a waste of money in ordinary devices.

But even premium alkalines can’t power a digital camera for more than about 60 minutes of shooting, viewing and deleting pictures still not enough to last the whole day at Six Flags, let alone your two-week vacation.

The final step up, therefore, is lithium batteries (not to be confused with lithium-ion laptop batteries) very expensive cells
($10 for four) that last five times as long as standard alkalines in high-drain electronics. Only Energizer makes AA
lithiums. Duracell makes a lithium power pack called CV3 that looks like two AA batteries fused together, but it fits only
certain digital camera models from Casio, Kodak and Olympus, for example, that have been designed to accept them.

If you use a high-drain device almost every day (this means you, palmtop and digital-photography addicts), the ultimate solution to the battery problem is nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries. Not only do they last even longer than premium alkalines, but for the ultimate in economy, you can recharge them 500 to 1,000 times by snapping them into a charger plugged into the wall.

Rayovac’s superb $30 charger (for AA, AAA and 9-volt sizes) rejuvenates drained NiMH’s in one hour or less, a great
improvement over previous chargers. (You’d think that engineers would have devised a shorthand for this battery’s name, so they don’t have to spend their days shouting, “Yo, Frank, should I put these nickel metal hydrides over on the nickel metal hydride shelf?” But they haven’t.)

The trouble with NiMH’s is that they lose their charge over time about 15 percent per month. That makes them poor choices for long-term locations like remote controls, smoke detectors, digital cameras used only occasionally and, for that matter, the kitchen battery drawer. Some people keep one set in the charger and a second set in the camera, so they’re always ready; but that’s a lot of complication. At this point, rechargeables (including rechargeable alkalines, short-lived batteries that you can recharge only a few times) represent only 1 percent of battery sales. On the other hand, it’s the fastest-growing battery category.

If you’d like to minimize complexity and maximize economy, then, the bottom line is this: Buy standard alkalines for everyday gadgets. Cheap store brands generally do just as well as big-name brands. In digital cameras, palmtops and other high-powered gizmos, buy rechargeable nickel metal hydrides (for gear you use daily) or Duracell Ultras (for gear you store between uses).